Airspace as a Weapon -- What Army Commanders need to know about airspace to be effective
Foreword
The Army Joint Support Team (AJST) presents the following topics to assist in educating Army commanders on joint air-ground operations. This publication informs the reader on how to effectively employ Army forces/assets in the air domain to conduct operations using procedures based on current doctrine that are typically established in an airspace control system, as part of the command and control (C2) architecture of a joint operations area/theater of operations. Division and corps commanders and staffs need to consider airspace requirements for all organic and supporting airspace users throughout the operations planning process to ensure the airspace control system (ACS), and relevant orders, support Army airspace requirements and are responsive to dynamic ground forces’ operations (e.g., airspace control plans, airspace control orders, any special instructions, etc.).
Field Manual (FM) 3-0, Operations, 1 October 2022, established the division as the Army’s principle tactical warfighting formation. As such, Army divisions must contain the capabilities at their own echelon that they will need to accomplish major battlefield tasks. Divisions, supported by corps and theater Army, must be allowed to fight as formations and deliver decisive advantages in large-scale combat operations. To fulfill their role as the decisive tactical formation, Army divisions require the ability to effectively integrate surface-to-surface fires with joint airpower operating within the same volume of airspace in support of the ground force. Direct control of airspace and airspace users is a critical capability necessary for Army divisions to succeed in their tactical operations. Divisions are ideally positioned to execute airspace control on behalf of the corps commander and the supporting air component because of proximity to the enemy and understanding of the ground scheme of maneuver and supporting fires.
Army commanders that thoroughly understand joint air operations and comply with the joint force commander’s plan for airspace control and the use of airpower, increase the likelihood of securing the airspace and resources required to successfully conduct operations. Commanders demonstrate their knowledge of operations in the air domain by using doctrinally accurate terms to describe the tactical conditions within their area of operations, their airspace requirements, and the techniques used to mitigate risk to an acceptable level. Commanders understand and utilize the systems and methods described throughout this publication to request and employ joint airpower. They maintain a clear understanding of the ground scheme of maneuver and scheme of fires and deliberately plan airspace and fires to support the dynamic execution of targets to enhance their ability to effectively manage organic and supporting airspace users. Those commanders that are unable to clearly articulate and demonstrate their capability to control airspace will find themselves poorly positioned to influence joint airspace control decisions affecting their operations.
The information and concepts presented in this publication are referenced in various joint and service doctrine publications. Portions of text are copied or paraphrased from doctrine (where appropriate) to facilitate understanding of the topics and to reduce confusion. AJST’s intent is for this publication to serve as a resource for commanders that can be used as a reference when planning and executing joint air-ground operations.
COL John Sandor
Director
Army Joint Support Team
Executive Summary
JFACC. The joint force commander (JFC) normally designates a joint force air component commander (JFACC) to establish unity of command and unity of effort for joint air operations. The JFC will normally assign JFACC responsibilities to the component commander having the preponderance of forces to be tasked and the ability to effectively plan, task, and control joint air operations. Because joint air operations for a particular operation or campaign are often conducted theater wide, the JFC will normally delegate some theater-wide authorities and responsibilities to the air component.
ACA. The JFC is responsible for airspace control within the operations area but normally delegates that authority to the airspace control authority (ACA). The JFACC may be designated by the JFC to perform the duties of the ACA. The ACA is a commander designated by the JFC to assume overall responsibility for the operation of the ACS in the airspace control area.
ACS. The ACS is an arrangement by the ACA of the components and host-nation airspace control elements (organizations, personnel, policies, procedures, and facilities) required to perform airspace control.
Airspace control elements. Airspace control elements are trained, organized, and equipped to provide varied airspace control and management capabilities. Control of airspace may only be delegated to airspace control elements recognized by the ACA as part of the ACS.
ACP. The ACA develops the airspace control plan (ACP) and the airspace control order (ACO). The ACP provides specific planning guidance and procedures for the airspace control system for the joint force operational area and is approved by the JFC.
ACO. The ACO implements specific control procedures for established time periods. It defines and establishes airspace for military operations as coordinated by the ACA and notifies all agencies of the effective time of activation and the structure of the airspace.
Airspace control. Airspace control is the exercise of delegated authority over designated airspace and airspace users through control procedures and coordination measures to maximize operational effectiveness. Airspace control, when delegated from the JFC’s designated ACA, includes specified authorities over a volume of airspace to coordinate, integrate, and regulate airspace users.
Airspace management. Airspace management is the planning, coordination, integration, and regulation of airspace-by-airspace control elements in support of airspace control. Airspace control relies upon airspace management capabilities provided by airspace control elements with the appropriate training for effective and safe operations in the air domain. Airspace control and airspace management are distinctly different terms. They complement one another and are essential to overall military effectiveness and in achieving JFC objectives.
Positive and procedural control. There are two types of airspace control to include positive control and procedural control. Positive control relies on surveillance, accurate identification, and effective communications between ACA-designated airspace control elements and all airspace users. Positive control requires two primary conditions: the means to locate and identify airspace users via electronic means and the ability to maintain continuous communications with them for required control instructions. Procedural control relies on common procedures, designated airspace, and promulgated instructions for airspace control elements to deconflict and activate air traffic control measures (ATCMs), airspace coordinating measures (ACMs), fire support coordination measures (FSCMs), and air defense measures.
JAGIC. The joint air-ground integration center (JAGIC) collocates decision-making authorities from the land component (Army division staff) and air component (Air Force air support operations center) to support the supported maneuver commander's objectives and intent. Army division commanders that have requested, justified the tactical necessity, and demonstrated the capability to control airspace (by executing the JAGIC tactics, techniques, and procedures [TTPs] in their command post [CP]), may be assigned a volume of airspace for their JAGIC to procedurally control.
TAGS. The JAGIC is recognized as an airspace control element of the theater air-ground system (TAGS). The TAGS combines each service component’s C2 and airspace control systems into a multi-domain framework, allowing them to operate as part of a unified effort in support of the JFC. The Air Force theater air control system (TACS) and Army air-ground system (AAGS) are part of the TAGS and are habitually integrated to enhance air-ground operations, conducting critical functions for each service, and creating synergistic effects for joint operations.
Joint targeting cycle. Planning for the employment of airpower in support of the joint force requires understanding the linkages between the joint targeting cycle and the joint air tasking cycle. The joint targeting cycle supports joint planning and execution of operations by providing flexibility required to support the concept of operations and commander’s intent as the operational environment changes, opportunities arise, and plans change. The joint targeting cycle provides necessary target system analysis, and the JFC approved joint target list, restricted target list, and no-strike list. These target lists are used to produce a prioritized list of targets for execution called the joint integrated prioritized target list (JIPTL). The JIPTL is approved by the JFC.
Joint air tasking cycle. The joint air tasking cycle is an analytical and systematic cycle that focuses joint air efforts on accomplishing operational requirements. It provides an iterative and cyclic process for planning and tasking joint air missions and sorties within the guidance of the JFC. The joint air tasking cycle begins with the JFC’s objectives, incorporates guidance received during JFC and component coordination, and culminates with assessment of previous actions. The JFC’s guidance is normally communicated through the joint targeting coordination board and documented in the air operations directive to focus use of joint air capabilities for a specified period. Important outputs of the joint air tasking cycle are the ACO, and the air tasking order (ATO). The ATO articulates the tasking for joint air operations for a specific execution period, normally 24 hours.
The joint air tasking cycle is synchronized with the JFC’s battle rhythm. The joint air operations center (JAOC) normally establishes a 72 to 96-hour ATO planning cycle. The battle rhythm or daily operations cycle provides suspense for targeting, air support requests, friendly order of battle updates, etc., to produce the air battle plan that is used to create the ATO message and other products. When effects exceeding Army organic capabilities are identified during the planning process, Army air support requests are created and submitted to the supporting air component to be resourced by joint capabilities. Airspace is planned to support the operation and Army airspace requirements are submitted to the ACA for approval. The ACA ensures airspace is coordinated across the joint force.
UAP. Army airspace elements (AEs) perform a series of collective tasks during staff planning to integrate airspace user’s requirements with other coordination measures. The unit airspace plan (UAP) represents the integration of a unit’s airspace requirements for their area of operations for a specified time (aligned with the ACO). The production of the daily UAP is per the ACA’s ACP and supporting Appendix 10 (Airspace Control), to Annex C (Operations), of the Army operations order. UAP inputs include ACMs, FSCMs, and maneuver control measures.
ACM. ACMs are employed to facilitate the efficient use of airspace to accomplish missions and simultaneously provide safeguards for friendly forces. ACMs are nominated from subordinate headquarters through component command headquarters and forwarded to the ACA in accordance with the ACP. The ACA consolidates, coordinates, and deconflicts the airspace requirements of the components and publishes the ACMs in the ACO. Simply stated, planned ACMs are approved by the ACA and disseminated via the ACO.
Army airspace control. Control of airspace and airspace users via the JAGIC TTP (or similar future capabilities) is a critical capability necessary for Army divisions to succeed in their tactical operations. Located in the Army division current operations integration cell, the JAGIC provides commanders a technique to coordinate, integrate, and control operations in division-assigned airspace and efficiently collaborate requirements with external airspace elements outside of the division area. The JAGIC collocates decision making authorities from the land and air component to support the supported maneuver commander's objectives and intent.
The collocation of Army and Air Force airspace personnel with fires, air defense, and Army aviation personnel allows for responsive execution of airspace control. The JAGIC facilitates effective mission execution while managing the level of risk. To fulfill their role as the decisive tactical formation, Army divisions require the ability to effectively integrate surface-to-surface fires with joint airpower operating within the same volume of airspace in support of the ground force.
ASOC. As a direct subordinate C2 element of the JAOC, the air support operations center (ASOC) is responsible for directing and controlling air operations in its assigned area, short of the fire support coordination line and up to the coordinating altitude. Air missions conducted within the ASOC’s control area, and not directly supporting the ground component, are coordinated through the ASOC. The ASOC deconflicts ground force maneuver and fires and provides target and threat updates for supporting aircraft. Maintaining alignment of ASOCs at the division echelon increases situational awareness for the joint force. Information is fed back to the JAOC and shared with other TACS elements directly from the ASOC as soon as it is acquired. Removing the ASOC from the division CP may cause unnecessary delays in the information flow, reducing the effectiveness of joint airpower in execution.
The division is the most relevant echelon at which the most accurate and pertinent information regarding the current operation is maintained. The JAGIC TTP is likely the best option for the ACA to control the volume of airspace where an Army division will conduct tactical operations. ASOC personnel working in a division CP gain an in-depth understanding of the scheme of fires and the ground scheme of maneuver. This situational understanding is required to effectively control airspace with the high density of indirect surface fires and other airspace users typically expected during large-scale combat operations (LSCO).
JTEC. To ensure unity of effort and fully integrated use of capabilities for deep operations, a joint targeting and execution capability (JTEC) TTP within the corps headquarters could be used to synchronize all fire support assets in accordance with the commander’s guidance. The JTEC TTP integrates with the corps fire support element and other Army, joint, and multinational elements of the fire support system. The JTEC is not a cell, but a TTP resident within the current operations integration cell. The JTEC TTP allows a tactical corps to manage direct support airpower and conduct dynamic targeting in response to emerging targets of opportunity. The TTP does not provide the manning or equipment to control a volume of airspace for extended periods and should not be confused with a division JAGIC’s function as an airspace control element.
The primary focus of the JTEC TTP is to support the corps’ role to conduct deep operations as tactical headquarters in LSCO. The TTP provides a base personnel structure, positioned in multiple locations (main and tactical CP), with multi-service capability leveraging trained personnel and digital systems. The JTEC TTP reinforces the staff’s roles, missions, and functions that support accomplishing the commander’s guidance, intent, and objectives. The JTEC TTP provides the means to effectively structure relationships and processes facilitated through the physical integration of selected current operations staff members with Air Force personnel.
The JTEC TTP supports airspace management through decentralized execution. It will, for example, provide target updates to scheduled and/or on-call air missions conducting target engagements in the corps area of operations. The JTEC will not typically conduct airspace control during execution. Airspace control is executed by designated airspace control elements per the ACP. Normally, airspace use in the corps area of operations below a coordinating altitude will be controlled by that responsible division’s JAGIC/ASOC, and airspace use above the coordinating altitude will be controlled by other airspace control elements of the TACS.
Army airspace control is most effective at the division echelon. Divisions exercising the JAGIC TTP are much better positioned to execute airspace control on behalf of the corps commander and the ACA because of their proximity to the enemy and understanding of the ground scheme of maneuver and supporting fires. Division commanders require the ability to efficiently direct/re-direct the movement of joint airpower operating in support of the ground force within the division area of operations to actively counter enemy actions and ensure success in the close fight.
Maintaining ASOC alignment in the Army division CP supports the Air Force’s distributed control and decentralized execution requirements. An ASOC operating within the division CP enhances the JFACC’s situational awareness of the tactical situation as it progresses in real time. ASOCs feed tactical information to decision makers within the JFACC’s JAOC and to other TACS elements. ASOCs ensure Army needs are identified at the appropriate echelon. The ASOC provides effective and timely C2 of aircraft operating in support of tactical ground combat formations. ASOC personnel working within the Army division CP are acutely aware of the current operation and are best positioned to provide valuable insight to the Army commander on the most effective use of airpower at any given time, thus ensuring that available airpower is not unintentionally wasted or misused.
The division is the Army’s principal tactical warfighting formation during LSCO and as such, the division requires the capabilities afforded by the ASOC to mass combat power in peer-on-peer combat operations. An Army commander exercising the JAGIC TTP in the CP is likely the best means available to the ACA to control the volume of airspace where significant tactical ground combat operations will occur. Knowledgeable and informed commanders make a strong case to the ACA in support of maintaining ASOC alignment at the division echelon to conduct procedural control of airspace and airspace users via the JAGIC TTP.
When requesting a volume of airspace to control, commanders must demonstrate their knowledge of airspace by using doctrinally accurate terms to describe the tactical conditions within their area of operations, their airspace requirements, and the techniques used to mitigate risk to an acceptable level and by understanding and utilizing the TACS/AAGS. It is the responsibility of Army commanders to clearly articulate to the ACA their airspace requirements and demonstrate that the CP contains the capabilities required to be delegated a volume of airspace.
Continue reading the rest of the publication here. 24-908_Airspace as a Weapon (Aug 24) (Public).pdf
*Endnotes are included in the attached pdf file.
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